History UsefulNotes / TheRomanEmpire

The Empire differed from the much later feudal notion of succession in that it did not really have primogeniture, but carried the idea of practical HereditaryRepublic by means of [[TheFamilyForTheWholeFamily client-patronage relations]]; the concept of titles passing to the blood descendant came much later, with Marcus Aurelius, and became much more of a constant in the still later Eastern Roman Empire. Under Augustus, the Emperor's reign was primarily civilian and judicial rather than military, and indeed Augustus actually reduced the size of the army and devalued many of its honors and substituted it with other institutions, including the PraetorianGuard. But this arrangement decayed under his successors and the Julio-Claudian Dynasty in time would be toppled by commanders in the army, and later Roman dynasties were likewise built from the successes of military strongmen, and by the time of Septimius Severus, the pretense that the office of the Empire was independent of the Army was dispensed with, marking the final decay of TheRemnant of the republican norms that had survived until then.

Widely considered the greatest Roman emperor since Augustus, his conquests expanded the Roman Empire to its peak. Trajan conquered Dacia, or modern Romania (Traian is still a common name there), northwestern Arabia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, only failing to reach Persia and India as he wished due to his bad health and subsequent death. Born in the town of Italica, near modern Seville in Spain, he was notable for being the first emperor not hailing from Italy, even although he technically still descended from an old Italian family settled in Spain. A lover of Greek philosophy and culture, he even formed a male harem which included the next emperor in line, Hadrian, but managed to get the people to overlook this through sheer popularity. Was kind of a humanist, built many impressive buildings and gave Christians a needed break, leading medieval Christian writers such as Dante (yes, [[Literature/TheDivineComedy that Dante]]) to place him in Heaven despite Trajan being pagan (Catholic tradition holds that Pope Gregory I raised him from the dead enough to convert him).

A peacemaker who pulled back from several areas conquered by Trajan, after which he travelled around the empire to inspect the frontiers and built the eponymous wall in Britain to the effect. Like his predecessor, he vehemently supported Greek culture and considered himself intellectual and enlightened, only he had also bizarre whims and a ridiculously short temper. Also like Trajan, had many male favorites and is one of the emperors called gay most often by modern commentators, although he was more likely bisexual -- to the chagrin of his wife, who wanted nothing with him. He even had one of them deified after said favorite died young (sources disagree as to whether it was an accident, illness, murder, human sacrifice or some combination thereof). He is remembered by Jews for being the Emperor who brutally crushed the Bar Kochba revolt, renaming Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina and generally making things harder for them. His reign was obscure with relatively few historical depictions, one exception being Marguerite Yourcenar's classic ''Memoirs of Hadrian''. Had the most sophisticated succession system of all emperors by allowing Antoninus become emperor when Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus were considered too young to rule.

Famous for doing nothing at all besides ruling competently for 22 years. Was apparently a very humble, pleasant fellow. In fact, unlike Trajan, Hadrian and the other warrior-emperors that would follow him, Antonius Pius probably never left Italy on campaign and fought his wars entirely through intermediaries in the field. Rumour has it that he also sent a delegation to the Han Dynasty in China during his reign (well, him or Hadrian). Also built a second wall in Britain (after some victories he managed) which was soon abandoned. He received the cognomen Pius because he deified Hadrian in exchange for pardoning some Senators which Hadrian had sentenced to death.

!! Marcus Aurelius (161 -- 180)

When he started his reign, he lost to a barbarian ambush, only to decisively crush them in Italy and Illyria. He tried to fix the currency, which lead to the 'first' mint revolt and was subsequently crushed as well. Aurelian then marched east to the Palmyrene Empire, crushed Zabdas' forces twice under [[LadyOfWar Queen Zenobia]], and sacked Palmyra after they attempted to revolt after he briefly left the region. He then marched west and swiftly destroyed and reintegrated the Gallic Empire under Tetricus. His reign ended the worst period of the Crisis of the Third Century and as such, he obtained the title of ''Restitutor Orbis'', or restorer of the world. Was assassinated by several of his officers after a 5-year reign due to a forgery of one of his secretary, who feared Aurelian's punishment for lying on a random issue. Mourned by not just his soldiers, but also [[MyGodWhatHaveIDone his own assassins]]. His wife Ulpia Severina may have ruled in the interregnum after Aurelian's death, being the only woman to have ever done so.

Widely considered to be the greatest Roman emperor since Augustus, his conquests increased the Roman Empire to its peak. Trajan conquered Dacia, or modern Romania (Traian is still a common name there), northwestern Arabia, Armenia, and Mesopotamia, only failing to reach Persia and India as he wished due to his bad health. Born in the town of Italica, near modern Seville in Spain, he was notable for being the first emperor not hailing from Italy, even although he technically still descended from an old Italian family settled in Spain. Even medieval Christian writers such as Dante (yes, [[Literature/TheDivineComedy that Dante]]) placed him in Heaven, despite Trajan being pagan (Catholic tradition holds that Pope Gregory I raised him from the dead just to convert him).

A peacemaker who pulled back from several areas conquered by Trajan. Travelled around the empire, and built the eponymous wall in Britain. Known for vehemently supporting Greek culture, almost to a bizarre degree. He is also remembered by Jews for being the Emperor who brutally crushed the Bar Kochba revolt, renaming Jerusalem Aelia Capitolina and generally making things harder for them. His reign was obscure with relatively few historical depictions. One exception is Marguerite Yourcenar's classic ''Memoirs of Hadrian''. Had a male favorite deified after said favorite died young (sources disagree as to whether it was an accident, illness, murder, human sacrifice or some combination thereof). He is one of the emperors called gay most often by modern commentators, although he was more likely bisexual -- to the chagrin of his wife, who wanted nothing with him. Had the most sophisticated succession system of all emperors by allowing Antoninus become emperor when Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus were considered too young to rule.

Famous for doing nothing at all besides ruling competently for 22 years. In fact, unlike Trajan and the other warrior-emperors that would follow him, Antonius Pius probably never left Italy on campaign and fought his wars entirely through intermediaries in the field. Rumour has it that he also sent a delegation to the Han Dynasty in China during his reign (well, him or Hadrian). Also built a second wall in Britain (after some victories he managed) which was soon abandoned. He received the cognomen Pius because he deified Hadrian in exchange for pardoning some Senators which Hadrian had sentenced to death.

Wisest of the emperors. Initially ruled the empire with Lucius Verus, the first time the Empire had more than one emperor. Tried to live up to the ideal of ThePhilosopherKing, and the author of the well-known ''[[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditations Meditations]]''. The ''Meditations'' are significant because they are one of the relatively few complete works of UsefulNotes/{{Stoicism}} we have. They are also one of the most accessible works on Stoicism: as Marcus wrote them as a personal diary relating to his daily struggles to be a good person and a good ruler, they put the Stoic worldview in very concrete terms, and are recommended as a self-help book as much as an academic work on ethics.

Last emperor to rule over east and west (for barely over a year, though). Made Christianity of the Nicene Creed the ''de jure'' state religion, although contrary to what was claimed by Christian propaganda and traditional historiography, he did not ban paganism in the process (it would still take centuries for Christianity to overtake it). Fought the Goths to a stalemate but was unable to win a conclusive victory. His PyrrhicVictory in a civil war which won him control of both halves of the Empire may have devastated the Western military so far it couldn't recover. Split the Empire after his death for the final time, the west going to his younger son Honorius and the east going to his elder son Arcadius.

Although the Pax Romana specifically refers to a phenomenon in the Mediterranean world, the fact is that the period was marked by unusual peace across a solid belt across the Eurasian civilized world from the Atlantic to the Pacific, controlled by four great empires: Rome in the west; with Persia to its east; and then to Persia's east the Kushan and Gupta empires in Afghanistan and northern India; and to the east of both of those the [[UsefulNotes/DynastiesFromShangToQing Han Dynasty]] held not only the Chinese heartland but also the Tarim Basin in modern Xinjiang. This is arguably the first period of "proto-globalization,"[[note]]the Hellenistic period might also count, although frankly the Greek kingdoms kept fighting each other and China was disunited, which put a serious damper on trade[[/note]] as in this time, the influence of the four large empires (Rome, Persia, India, and China) made regular cross-Eurasian trade not merely a reality, but big business. Although restricted to luxuries -- nothing else was worth shipping that far -- there was unquestionably regular trade, with the Romans developing a taste for Eastern silk and spices, the Chinese developing an interest in Roman glassware, and everything in between. (The Han, by the way, sent an explorer to Rome, who didn't quite reach Rome at the insistence of the Parthians, who were justifiably terrified of the two imperial juggernauts to their East and West deciding to meet in the middle. Nevertheless, he left a fairly detailed report, if one coloured by Chinese mythological views of the West; the Han seem to have greatly respected Rome, seeing it as a Western mirror to themselves and calling it ''Daqin'': Great China.) Ideas also travelled: Christianity made its way to India and Central Asia in this time, finding moderate purchase; late in the period, the Persian-origin Mithraism and Manichaeism spread to Rome and China, becoming for a time serious rivals to Christianity (with one of its saints, Augustine, being a former Manichean). At the same time, fighting was restricted to proxy wars at the fringes of the great empires. This period of peace ended, however, after plagues swept Rome and China in the third century. The Western Roman Empire managed to hang on for another two centuries, but only just (see below), while the East held on for another 1200 years; the Han [[Literature/RomanceOfTheThreeKingdoms met their fate quicker]].

The Pax Romana was not all fun and gladiator games. Rome was still an ancient society with all the problems that entails, most people were still peasants dealing with problems common to such people. Slaves made up a substantial section of the population, some more educated ones could be freed and made full citizens, but condition for many were harsh. The city of Rome itself dealt with problems common to modern cities, but without modern tools fires, disease, unemployment and other issues were regular occurrences. Though mostly internally peaceful, revolts did occasionally occur with much violence, such as the Jewish revolt in 66, and as the crucifixions suggest maintaining order could be quite violent. Towards the end of the period, a plague swept through the empire killing a substantial fraction of the population.

The western part of the empire, including Rome itself, fell apart in the late 400s. The eastern half survived until 1453, but lost much of its territory during this time and never came close to Rome's former power after the 700's or so. Why this happened is a big question in history, intellectuals of all sorts have theorized and commented on it for a long time.

The Pax Romana didn't last forever, most commonly the ending is dated to the death of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He was seen as a good emperor, his son and successor Commodus...[[{{SketchySuccessor}} wasn't]]. See the section on individual emperors for more information. Commodus was overthrown, and a series of emperors took control in several coups. This had happened when Nero was overthrown, followed by three short lived emperors and Vespasian, but that pattern of armies or Praetorian guards overthrowing an emperor would get common over the next century. Most people proclaimed Emperor during this time would be killed by these coups instead of natural causes. In the middle 200's, the civil wars and overthrowing of emperors got so bad the period is know as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this time, a couple of breakaway states appeared in Gaul (modern France) and around what is now Syria and Lebanon.

Such splits have destroyed many empires in history, but somehow, Rome wasn't one of them. A series of soldier Emperors managed to patch things together with duct tape and bailing wire, an accomplishment many historians regard as about as unlikely and impressive as any of Rome's GoldenAge achievements in building the empire in the first place. Aurelian would succeed in re-uniting the fractured empire by defeating the rival dynasties in Gaul and Syria, and his successor Diocletian would be in charge of repairing all of the damage. Diocletian repelled the invaders and began reforming the Empire to try and keep it from splintering again. He decided that the Empire had become far too big for one ruler, and he split it in two. This was further expanded with "Co-Emperors", making the ruling of Rome a four-man job. Rome itself stopped being the capital sometime after, though it was still an important city. One of these emperor's sons, Constantine, became emperor himself and is most well known for making Christianity the primary religion of the Empire. Rome has lost Dacia, but otherwise had kept roughly the same territory it had when Marcus Aurelius had died.

Rome continued for a couple centuries under this system, though civil wars and coups were still common, but it wasn't as prosperous as it had been during the Pax Romana. The plague has reduced its population which hadn't recovered. Government expenses had increased. Emperors had increased army salaries to avoid being overthrown, and also created a more involved, larger imperial administration. However, the economy to pay for these expenses had shrunk. Some economic decisions didn't help, such as debasing the currency, and restricting the population's mobility to make administration and tax collection easier.

Still, the empire was attractive enough to draw in various Germanic tribes, these were invited to settle less populated frontier areas in return for military support. Rome had incorporated outsiders successfully throughout its history, but for various reasons these incorporations didn't go as well. Several of these groups fought Rome, and caused major defeats. Rome was sacked by Goths in 410, the first time in about 870 years the city had suffered such an attack, more would follow over the century. Parts of the western empire were gradually taken over by various Germanic tribes, though this was a back and forth process. Meanwhile, political instability meant that the Roman government couldn't respond as effectively as it might have, coups and wars continued until the fall of Rome. The split between east and west may have backfired, as these two sections sometimes struggled for power.

The most common date for the Western empire's fall is 476, when a chieftain named Odoacer overthrew the boy emperor Romulus Augustus. Odoacer may have wanted to continue the empire, asking for recognition from the East, but this support did not come and the western empire never reappeared. The Eastern Empire remained strong for a couple centuries afterward, at times conquering back western Mediterranean territory, including Rome itself at points. However, Muslim conquests in the Middle East and Africa, and groups like Bulgars and Slavs in the Balkans reduced its territory to Greece and Anatolia over the 600s and 700s. It continued this way until 1453, when Constantinople was conquered by the Ottomans. See UsefulNotes/ByzantineEmpire for more.

Modern history has a few possible explanations for why Rome fell. Some popular ideas are considered implausible or flat out wrong. "Decadence" is one of these, some supposed examples take place centuries before the empire actually collapsed, during its most prosperous period. Lead poisoning from pipes was a well known theory, but like with decadence lead pipes were used for centuries before the fall. More probable is climate change, the time of the Pax Romana was a more welcoming time, possibly leading to more food production and a wealthier, higher population that could sustain an empire. Institutional and economic problems may have simply built up too much, as most of this section describes. Officials had over time realized that the army was the main center of power in the empire, which led to many coups and other power struggles. Measures put in place to avoid these didn't fully work, and imposed their own costs. Rome may have gotten less effective at incorporating outsiders. Towards the end, members of the empire had long since been fully incorporated and considered themselves fully Roman, most Germanic tribes wanted to join Rome rather than forcibly conquer it, including many high officials, but by design or by accident these new entrants weren't as assimilated as previous outsiders had been. These groups were the ones to divide up the western empire.

The Eastern parts of the empire were richer and better able to survive these stresses, but the same problems would have effected it as well. High taxes and conflict between different Christian sects meant that Muslim invaders were preferable in many cases, so inhabitants of conquered regions didn't put up much of a fight. In migration into Eastern Europe resulted in separate kingdoms instead of incorporation in many cases.

Still, even with these problems, Rome lasted a very long time for a civilization, and this shouldn't be forgotten.

Even after the empire fell apart, various successors claimed to be heirs of Rome, most importantly the Ottomans, Holy Roman empire, and Russian Czars. The vary names "Emperor" and "Empire" originally were used by claimed successors, though in the past few centuries this meaning has relaxed, and empire and emperor have acquired its modern meaning of "political entity/person that controls lots of territory". "Emperor" used to mean "ruler of China/Japan/Other such places", was originally by analogy with Rome. "Czar" "Kaiser" and similar words for ruler come from Caesar, obviously another Roman influence.

Most of Western Europe was a collection of small tribal areas and chiefdoms before Roman conquest, than ruled by it for several hundred years (~700 to ~500 for most of Spain and Portugal, ~500 for most of France, ~300 for England). Italy for a somewhat longer amount of time. These areas, understandably, have been most influenced by Rome. Laws are heavily based on Roman law. Languages in these areas apart from Britain, plus Romania, are descended from Latin. Latin itself remained the language of intellectual subjects and the church, thus Latin names being common in science, law, and OminousLatinChanting as a trope, among other uses. France itself started from one of the barbarian kingdoms that took over Roman territory in the western half's last century. Despite many attempts, no other conquerers have been able to unify the same parts of Western Europe in the same way. Numerous moderns cities, most famously London and Paris, started as Roman settlements.

Eastern portions of the empire already had a long history of organized civilizations and empires, and were more resistant to influence. Still, they too have incorporates laws and history from Rome, though Arab, Turkish, and later conquests are likely more important influences on the culture of these regions.

Though Rome at first persecuted Christianity and Crucifixion was a Roman punishment, Roman trade networks and peace helped the religion spread, once the empire converted it helped even more. Almost all adherents of the religion today follow a type that originates in Rome (Catholic and Eastern Orthodox started in the empire, protestant religions are an offshoot of Catholic Christianity). Only the Ethiopian Church and some other small groups have a different history. In some ways, the Catholic church could be considered a successor to the empire itself, with its leader in Rome exerting influence over similar territory, using latin, and still being based in the city.

Most of the emperors during this time are seen as successful, though Caligula, Nero, and Domitian have bad reputations. Some historians think these are exaggerated, evidence suggests Domitian was actually quite skilled and just angered the wrong people, though Nero and Caligula still aren't seen well. The most common method of succession was adoption: the current emperor would chose a successful, well liked official as official heir. The practice started with Augustus, it is likely he wanted hereditary inheritance, but had few potential heirs and these died. Choosing his heir, a successful general called Tiberius, was an successful backup option, it put an experienced, proven leader in charge, who already had loyalty from the necessary power centers. Adoption was also used by Nerva through Antoninus Pious. However, the system never established itself as official, so Vespasian and many later emperors went to hereditary inheritance, like with Augustus, adoption was a backup option if the emperor had no sons to inherit.. During this time, the Senate was still powerful, emperors drew officials from it, sought its approval, and senate involvement helped in a couple palace coups. Other republican institutions during this time became less powerful, even fading away.

Though Rome at first persecuted Christianity and Crucifixion was a Roman punishment, Roman trade networks and peace helped the religion spread, once the empire converted it helped even more. Almost all adherents of the religion today follow a type that originates in Rome (Catholic and Eastern Orthodox started in the empire, protestant religions are an offshoot of Catholic Christianity) Only the Ethiopian Church and some other small groups have a different history. In some ways, the Catholic church could be considered a successor to the empire itself, with its leader in Rome exerting influence over similar territory, using latin, and still being based in the city.

Roman construction is its most visible legacy: big ruins like the coliseum and smaller structures like its roads, survived through the fall to today. These structures could be built thanks to a strong central government to organize needed resources and good solid construction, including the use of concrete, the use of which would be forgotten until new kinds were created in the industrial period. Roman roads and settlement patterns influenced where cities were built, which have lasted to this day.

While Rome was unusually successful, prosperous, and long lasting, this has often been exaggerated by people living after, particularly in Europe. Medieval Europe wasn't as unified politically, but a few centuries after Rome's fall was likely about as productive and technologically advanced as Rome had been, the exact time this happened depends what you look at. Christianity would expand further after the empire fell, organized, powerful states would appear in areas Rome never reached, Vikings would sail farther than Roman period sailors did, as would later Italians (both groups would later reach the Americas). In Southeastern Europe, Slavic groups set much of the culture, in now Muslim areas, the Caliphate more often is the nostalgia empire of choice.

A note on names: The names of the emperors are not their actual, full names, and they are not named in any particular pattern after their full names. This is because emperor names would get long and repetitive otherwise. The first Emperor, for example, called himself Gaius Julius Caesar during the competition for power, since he was adopted by the other most famous Roman politician with that name. Augustus was than added as an honorific, in the same way the Germanicus were added to some generals or Scipio Africanus got the Africanus part after battles in Africa. The next guy was Tiberius Claudius Nero when born, Tiberius Julius Caesar when adopted, than Tiberius Caesar Augustus as Emperor. Followed by Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, than Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus/Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus, than Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. Same deal with the rest of the Emperors. So you can see why historical convention is to pick one element from the full name, make it unique for each Emperor, and use that.

From the founding of the city to the fall of Constantinople was about 2200 years. Even a smaller measure, Republic founding to fall of Rome itself, is about 1000 years. Almost no political entity can match that: China has over any similar length of time gone through disunity or been conquered, England and France are around 1200 to 1500 years old, some Bronze age civilizations may have lasted that time when changes were slower, otherwise almost no civilizations of empires come close. For hundreds of years, it was one of the most populated and powerful empires ever seen. Not surprisingly, it has had a major influence on the civilizations that came after.

* BigGuy: Possibly the largest and tallest Roman emperor.

* ExcessiveMourning: After his death, the army and the senate (who before then were constantly trying to put their own emperors over the senate) both refused to take charge to picking his successor. Eventually, the senate gave and installed Tacitus as emperor.