History UsefulNotes / MedievalFoodInEurope

Herbs were widely grown and just as widely used. Mustard was highly popular with meat dishes; horseradish was also popular in Eastern Europe, Germany, Scandinavia, and Britain. (The English famously mixed horseradish with mustard to make [[BlazingInfernoHellfireSauce Tewkesbury mustard]] no later than the early Renaissance--Shakespeare referenced the stuff.) Gardens held everything from sage and dill to mint and fennel.\\

Herbs were widely grown and just as widely used. Mustard was highly popular with meat dishes. Gardens held everything from sage and dill to mint and fennel.\\

Cheese was far more important in the medieval diet, because it didn't spoil as fast as liquid milk. Many modern varieties of cheese date back to the medieval period. Medieval Europe was an innovative time for cheesemaking, with many new techniques being discovered in the Middle Ages. Blue cheeses, washed-rind cheeses, and smear-ripened cheeses are all medieval inventions.\\

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines, perfumes, and cosmetics, and to perform alchemical experiments.[[note]]It's not clear exactly when and where the concept of distillation was developed, but it can be generally connected to late antiquity or the early Middle Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was originally used for the cosmetics industry; the Eastern beauty industry developed a technique for heating a certain mineral so it would sublimate and produce kohl, a fine powder used as an eyeliner. This eventually morphed into distilling essential oils from roses and suchlike to make fragrances and other beauty products. Alcohol-containing liquids were not distilled until the Islamic period, and while the Muslim nobility was always rather lax in their observation on their faith's proscription against intoxicants, consensus is that the Muslim alchemists working on alcohol really were mostly interested in alcohol's potential applications as a carrier for perfumes and "medicinal" herbs and spices--a job it actually does do rather well, since ethanol is a weird non-polar solvent that is itself miscible in water. That being said, the powerful intoxicating effect of the "medicinal" solutions was quickly noted; probably the oldest distilled beverage is the anise-based drink that goes by ''`araq'' in the Arab world, ''raki'' in Turkey, and either ''ouzo'' or ''rakki'' in Greece, which is most likely a descendant of these medieval medicinal tinctures. (It's also ancestral to Italian grappa--which ditches the anise--and sambuca--which keeps the anise and adds sugar--and to French ''pastis'' and absinthe--both of which add more European herbs on top of the anise.)[[/note]] For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

For fictionalised versions of medieval meals see StockMedievalMeal.

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines, perfumes, and cosmetics, and to perform alchemical experiments.[[note]]It's not clear exactly when and where the concept of distillation was developed, but it can be generally connected to late antiquity or the early Middle Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was originally used for the cosmetics industry, distilling essential oils from roses and suchlike to make fragrances and other beauty products. Alcohol-containing liquids were not distilled until the Islamic period, and while the Muslim nobility was always rather lax in their observation on their faith's proscription against intoxicants, consensus is that the Muslim alchemists working on alcohol really were mostly interested in alcohol's potential applications as a carrier for perfumes and "medicinal" herbs and spices--a job it actually does do rather well, since ethanol is a weird non-polar solvent that is itself miscible in water. That being said, the powerful intoxicating effect of the "medicinal" solutions was quickly noted; probably the oldest distilled beverage is the anise-based drink that goes by ''`araq'' in the Arab world, ''raki'' in Turkey, and either ''ouzo'' or ''rakki'' in Greece, which is most likely a descendant of these medieval medicinal tinctures. (It's also ancestral to Italian grappa--which ditches the anise--and sambuca--which keeps the anise and adds sugar--and to French ''pastis'' and absinthe--both of which add more European herbs on top of the anise.)[[/note]] For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines, perfumes, and cosmetics, and to perform alchemical experiments.[[note]]It's not clear exactly when and where the concept of distillation was developed, but it can be generally connected to late antiquity or the early Middle Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was originally used for the cosmetics industry, distilling essential oils from roses and suchlike to make fragrances and other beauty products. Alcohol-containing liquids were not distilled until the Islamic period, and while the Muslim nobility was always rather lax in their observation on their faith's proscription against intoxicants, consensus is that the Muslim alchemists working on alcohol really were mostly interested in alcohol's potential applications as a carrier for perfumes and "medicinal" herbs and spices--a job it actually does do rather well, since ethanol is a weird non-polar solvent that is itself miscible in water. That being said, the powerful intoxicating effect of the "medicinal" solutions was quickly noted; probably the oldest distilled beverage is the anise-based drink that goes by ''`araq'' in the Arab world, ''raki'' in Turkey, and either ''ouzo'' or ''rakki'' in Greece, which is most likely a descendant of these medieval medicinal tinctures. (It's also ancestral to Italian grappa and sambuca and to French ''pastis'' and absinthe, which add more European herbs on top of the anise.)[[/note]] For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

Even in cases where it was available, sugar was used exclusively as a sweetener or sprinkled over something like any other spice. The use of sugar as an actual ingredient (such as in a Victoria sponge cake) wouldn't appear until the Renaissance. Similarly, most traditional sweets, as we know them now, were not invented until the Victorian era (when plantations in the Americas - [[SlaveryIsASpecialKindOfEvil unfortunately]] - made it far more widely available and in larger quantities).\\

That said, sweets were still available. Many desserts would be recognisable to modern pallets, such as; rice pudding, custard tarts, bread and butter pudding and cheesecake. Whipped cream (typically known as "Milk/Cream Snow") was considered an expensive delicacy, as the lack of homogenised, high fat cream (and the fact that the balloon whisk wouldn't be invented until the Renaissance) made it time intensive to produce. (To give you an ideal, go ahead, try to make whipped cream with raw-milk cream and a fork. Or just regular modern single cream/light whipping cream and a fork. We'll wait.) Pastry doughs were fried to make fritters. Custards were another dessert staple (as eggs and milk were freely available). Cakes, such as funnel cake, were made using honey, making them a luxury for special occasions only (such as Christmas, or to celebrate one's birthday, if you had the money).\\

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines, perfumes, and cosmetics, and to perform alchemical experiments.[[note]]It's not clear exactly when and where the concept of distillation was developed, but it can be generally connected to late antiquity or the early Middle Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was originally used for the cosmetics industry, distilling essential oils from roses and suchlike to make fragrances and other beauty products. Alcohol-containing liquids were not distilled until the Islamic period, and while the Muslim nobility was always rather lax in its observation on their faith's proscription against intoxicants, consensus is that the Muslim alchemists working on alcohol really were mostly interested in alcohol's potential applications as a carrier for perfumes and "medicinal" herbs and spices--a job it actually does do rather well, since ethanol is a weird non-polar solvent that is itself miscible in water. That being said, the powerful intoxicating effect of the "medicinal" solutions was quickly noted; probably the oldest distilled beverage is the anise-based drink that goes by ''`araq'' in the Arab world, ''raki'' in Turkey, and either ''ouzo'' or ''rakki'' in Greece, which is most likely a descendant of these medieval medicinal tinctures. (It's also ancestral to Italian grappa and sambuca and to French ''pastis'' and absinthe, which add more European herbs on top of the anise.)[[/note]] For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

Almond milk, though perceived as a very modern phenomenon, actually dates from this period and can be found in many medieval recipes, where it was often used as a base or thickener in soups and sauces in high-class recipes. (Almonds were rather expensive--they're labor- and water-intensive, meaning they were only available to the well-off even in the regions like Spain and Italy with the warm climates needed to grow them. They were even more expensive in places like the British Isles, northern France, the Low Countries, and Germany, which had to import them from Southern Europe.)

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines, perfumes, and cosmetics, and to perform alchemical experiments.[[note]]It's not clear exactly when and where the concept of distillation was developed, but it can be generally connected to late antiquity or the early Middle Ages in the Eastern Mediterranean. It was originally used for the cosmetics industry, distilling essential oils from roses and suchlike to make fragrances and other beauty products. Alcohol-containing liquids were not distilled until the Islamic period, and while the Muslim nobility was always rather lax in its observation on their faith's proscription against intoxicants, consensus is that the Muslim alchemists working on alcohol really were mostly interested in alcohol's potential applications in skin care and as a carrier for perfume--a job it actually does do rather well.[[/note]] For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines, perfumes, and cosmetics, and to perform alchemical experiments. (Even the distillation of alcohol, which the Muslims pioneered, was developed for making medical tinctures and as a carrier for fragrances.) For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

Almond milk, though perceived as a very modern phenomenon, actually dates from this period and can be found in many medieval recipes, where it was often used as a base or thickener in soups and sauces.

For the tropes which apply to fictionalised versions see TheDungAges. %%For fictionalised versions of medieval meals see StockMedievalMeal[[[https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/discussion.php?id=jsza4n8uyy8gmx39t46ebatr draft]]]

Areas that raised a lot of cows also often used butter for cooking. This was usually a cultured butter, as unless you owned a truly massive number of cows, it took several days' worth of cream to make a worthwhile amount of butter. This tradition also led to the use of various kinds of sour cream and buttermilk in cooking. Yogurt, however, was largely unknown in Europe; that was mostly a Middle Eastern and Central Asian thing. (The very word ''yogurt'' is originally Turkish.)

Grain crops were the staff of life for the medieval peasant, and important to all social classes. Grains were eaten as bread or porridge.\\

That said, sweets were still available. Many desserts would be recognisable to modern pallets, such as; rice pudding, custard tarts, bread and butter pudding and cheesecake. Whipped cream (typically known as "Milk/Cream Snow") was considered an expensive delicacy, as the lack of homogenised, high fat cream (and the fact that the balloon whisk wouldn't be invented until the Renaissance) made it time intensive to produce. (Go ahead, try to make whipped cream with raw-milk cream and a fork. Or just regular modern single cream/light whipping cream and a fork. We'll wait.) Pastry doughs were fried to make fritters. Custards were another dessert staple (as eggs and milk were freely available). Cakes, such as funnel cake, were made using honey, making them a luxury for special occasions only (such as Christmas, or to celebrate one's birthday, if you had the money).\\

That said, sweets were still available. Many desserts would be recognisable to modern pallets, such as; rice pudding, custard tarts, bread and butter pudding and cheesecake. Whipped cream (typically known as "Milk/Cream Snow") was considered an expensive delicacy, as the lack of homogenised, high fat cream (and the fact that the balloon whisk wouldn't be invented until the Renaissance) made it time intensive to produce. Pastry doughs were fried to make fritters. Custards were another dessert staple (as eggs and milk were freely available). Cakes, such as funnel cake, were made using honey, making them a luxury for special occasions only (such as Christmas, or to celebrate one's birthday, if you had the money).\\

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks. Distillation was relatively new technology, being introduced from the Islamic world around the 12th century (possibly by returning Crusaders or by merchants following them), and the Muslims largely used the technique to make medicines and perfumes and to perform alchemical experiments. For most of the period, spirits would have been clear: The concept of aging spirits (and wines) in barrels was discovered still later as barrel technology improved, leading them to replace ceramic vessels as the primary means of transporting liquid commodities. The flavor they imparted was discovered by accident as a result of long trade journeys.

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the Renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks.

Areas that raised a lot of cows also often used butter for cooking; this was usually a cultured butter, as it took several days' worth of cream to make a worthwhile amount of butter. This tradition also led to the use of various kinds of sour cream and buttermilk in cooking. Yogurt, however, was largely unknown in Europe; that was mostly a Middle Eastern and Central Asian thing. (The very word ''yogurt'' is originally Turkish.)

Areas that raised a lot of cows also often used butter for cooking; this was usually a cultured butter, as it took several days' worth of cream to make a worthwhile amount of butter. This tradition also led to the use of various kinds of sour cream and buttermilk in cooking. Yogurt, however, was largely unknown, mostly being a Middle Eastern and Central Asian thing.

Those who couldn't afford meat got a lot of their animal protein from milk and dairy products. Milk was obtained from cows, sheep, and goats. Fresh milk was drunk by children, the poor, the sick, and the elderly; the average adult didn't drink it often.

Cheese was far more important in the medieval diet, because it didn't spoil as fast as liquid milk. Many modern varieties of cheese date back to the medieval period.

Areas that raised a lot of cows often used butter for cooking.

The majority of medieval people would have had access to clean drinking water from a well (unless they lived in a large city, where the water was likely to be contaminated by sewage), but would only settle for it if they couldn't afford anything else. The majority of drinks available to buy would mostly have been alcoholic, as the fermentation process was one of the few ways of preserving drinks. That said, it's likely that people would have made their own infusions, called "tisane", by boiling various grains, herbs and spices to flavour their water (or for medicinal purposes). Milk, as mentioned, was also an option.

Beers (which are what would now be defined as [[AllBeerIsAle ales]] - lager wouldn't be invented until the 15th century) were produced widely, with the idea of adding hops to act as a further preservative and bitterant appearing in the 13th century and spreading everywhere by the 16th (confusingly, "beer" made without hops is also known as ale). It was available wherever you went in northern Europe and made by everyone from commercial breweries to monasteries (who were obliged to provide both their monks and travellers with it).

[[TheNeedForMead Mead]] and wines were only available to the more affluent, as they needed large amounts of honey and fruit respectively to be fermented into them. Honey was expensive and fruit was hard to gather in large quantities. Cider was an exception, as apples were plentiful all year round in most of Europe. The Anglo-Saxons were also fond of perry, or pear cider. Grape wines were commonly drunk in France (then, as now, a wine-producing country), but further north imported French wine was only drunk by the wealthy.

Brandy and whiskey were known in medieval times (along with other spirits, but specific names for ''them'' didn't show up until the renaissance), but would mostly have been treated as medicines rather than drinks.

Fish was less prestigious than meat, but still an important protein source due to the Catholic Church's rules on fast days (when the faithful had to abstain from meat). Fresh fish would be caught locally, but salted/preserved fish were commonly traded. An important trade good for the Hanseatic League was barrels of herrings.

Other common fish were cod, pike, trout, lampreys, and perch.

Coastal regions often ate shellfish such as oysters, mussels, and scallops. River communities ate freshwater crayfish

Vegetables are underrepresented in medieval cookbooks, because the cookbooks were written for wealthy households and vegetables were considered peasant food.

Available root crops included carrots, onions, and beetroot/beets. There were a wide variety of legumes available; chickpeas, fava beans, and peas were all commonly grown. Cabbages, lettuce, and purslane were also grown and eaten.

Grain crops were the staff of life for the medieval peasant, and important to all social classes. Grains were eaten as bread or porridge.

The exact grains grown in an area would depend on the climate. If there was any way to grow wheat, though, there would be at least a small patch as a cash crop. Wheat was normally only eaten by the upper classes (or at least the rich). The highest grades of wheat bread were made with flour that had its bran sifted out, resulting in a white bread. Lower grades contained the bran, which made a darker loaf.

Beef was less common in the medieval period than in modern days, because cows were more valuable as milk producers and oxen were too important as plow/draught animals. Older animals might be slaughtered at the end of their useful life, but didn't produce high-quality meat. The wealthy could afford cattle butchered young, and that had been kept in pasture rather than kept at work.

Pigs and chickens were more commonly eaten by the lower classes, as both animals could be easily and cheaply fed. Pork also had the advantage of being easy to preserve as bacon, ham, and sausage. Hens might get a reprieve from the cookpot as long as they laid eggs. Wool-producing areas might eat mutton if a sheep had to be put down; lamb would have been for the wealthy.

Peafowl and swans were more used as display dishes at a feast than as serious sources of protein. Ducks and geese (either domesticated or hunted) were eaten, as were doves, pigeons, and many songbirds.

Herbs were widely grown and just as widely used. Mustard was highly popular with meat dishes. Gardens held everything from sage and dill to mint and fennel.

Nobility favored imported spices[[note]]The difference between herbs and spices being that herbs are taken from the leaves of a plant, while spices come from any other part, making them much easier to export[[/note]] for their food. They still ''used'' herbs as well, but it was far more prestigious to season a dish with black pepper or cinnamon. Other popular spices included sugar, cloves, saffron, and nutmeg. Some spices were common in medieval cookery but little-used these days -- examples would include grains of paradise, cubeb, spikenard, and long pepper.

Contrary to the usual [[TheDungAges dung ages]] claim, spices were ''not'' used to hide the taste of rotting food. Anyone who could afford the cost of imported spices could afford decent food to use them on. There are also plenty of cases in medieval law of merchants being punished for breaking food quality laws. Their food might not have been as fresh as what we find in the stores these days, but people didn't eat rotten food unless there was a famine.

The idea of cultivating sugar cane and extracting the juice is itself ancient (going back to at least 8000 BC), with refined, crystallised sugar being more recent, but still fairly old (with the earliest case being recorded in India in 350 AD).

While it was already widespread in the Islamic world by the middle ages, it took longer to reach Western Europe (cane being a tropical plant, could be grown in warm climates with proper irrigation methods, as it was in the Caliphate of Córdoba[[note]]now known as Spain and Portugal[[/note]]). However, it was imported (at roughly the same expense as any other spice), and slowly replaced honey as the de facto sweetener. As time went on, it became more and more commonplace (albeit still horrendously expensive). Italy (and specifically Venice) had a near monopoly on sugar imports after establishing plantations on several Mediterranean islands.

Even in cases where it was available, sugar was used exclusively as a sweetener or sprinkled over something like any other spice. The use of sugar as an actual ingredient (such as in a Victoria sponge cake) wouldn't appear until the Renaissance. Similarly, most traditional sweets, as we know them now, were not invented until the Victorian era (when plantations in the Americas - [[SlaveryIsASpecialKindOfEvil unfortunately]] - made it far more widely available and in larger quantities).

That said, sweets were still available. Many desserts would be recognisable to modern pallets, such as; rice pudding, custard tarts, bread and butter pudding and cheesecake. Whipped cream (typically known as "Milk/Cream Snow") was considered an expensive delicacy, as the lack of homogenised, high fat cream (and the fact that the balloon whisk wouldn't be invented until the Renaissance) made it time intensive to produce. Pastry doughs were fried to make fritters. Custards were another dessert staple (as eggs and milk were freely available). Cakes, such as funnel cake, were made using honey, making them a luxury for special occasions only (such as Christmas, or to celebrate one's birthday, if you had the money).

Fruit was often candied or dried, as it is today, both to preserve it and as a sweet treat. It could also be cooked on its own (e.g. poached pears), used as a filling in a pie or tart, or added to another dish as a sweetener. Breads were often sweetened with fruits such as currents and enriched with eggs and butter to make buns. "Cookies" (small cakes, rather than what would be called a cookie or biscuit today) were made using flour and butter, with raisins and other dried fruit as sweeteners. Ale was also used as a sweetener (not unlike the way cakes can be made using a good stout). Ginger, honey and almonds featured heavily as flavourings.

Salting and drying were the most common means of preserving food. Animals were usually slaughtered in the autumn so that they could be preserved over the winter (since they would need a lot more food in the colder months, this was more practical). This was typically achieved by pickling the meat and vegetables in brine. Vinegar was also used in the same way. Salting meat and vegetables in crystalline salt was only done for much longer term storage. Most recipes took into account that meat would be salted, and began by soaking the preserved meat in fresh water (depending on the cook's preference, this could involve multiple changes of water). As a result, medieval recipes rarely involve adding salt as a seasoning.

Drying was normally used on grain and herbs (which were air dried and stored) and fruits (which could also be air dried, but were more often sun dried in the summer months). It was less commonly used for meat in Europe compared to salting because it would need a specially built storage house, and it would take far longer than in warmer climates (and have far more risk that the drying food would spoil than in colder climates).

Smoking was also commonly used to preserve fish (especially in coastal towns) and some types of meat. It would usually be soaked briefly in brine before being exposed to wood smoke by drying it over a fire, or storing it in a smoking house. Some types off wood were especially prized for the flavour they gave smoked foods.

As sugar became more common, the wealthy would have had access to preserves like jam and (if they really wanted to show off and obtain citrus fruits) marmalade. Food could also be stored in honey to preserve it, by those who had it.

As mentioned above, milk was almost always allowed to ferment into cheese before being consumed.

Lastly, of course, food could be fermented into hard drinks. This was especially common with apples (as mentioned above under drinks), but wines made of all sorts of fruits and berries were produced, as they could be fermented with wild yeast. Anyone with access to enough honey could also ferment it to produce mead. Beer was rarely used as a long term storage method, as it spoiled too quickly.

However it was preserved, it would be stored somewhere as cool and dry as possible, like an underground cellar (if you were wealthy), or a pantry or cupboard (if you were not).

Even in cases where it was available, sugar was used exclusively as a sweetener or sprinkled over something like any other spice. The use of sugar as an actual ingredient (such as in a Victoria sponge cake) wouldn't appear until the Renaissance. Similarly, most traditional sweets, as we know them now, were not invented until the Victorian era (when plantations in the Americas, unfortunately, made it far more widely available and in larger quantities).

Note that while many MedievalEuropeanFantasy settings will use a medieval level of technology, they are still fantasy settings and thus don't need to worry about the specifics unless the author really wants to (in a fictional world where none of the European nobility or the Americas exist, there's no need to cry "historical accuracy!" over things like women knights or potatoes, after all).

While it was already widespread in the Islamic world by the middle ages, it took longer to reach Western Europe (cane being a tropical plant, could be grown in warm climates with proper irrigation methods, as it was in the Caliphate of Cordoba[[note]]Now known as Spain and Portugal[[/note]]). However, it was imported (at roughly the same expense as any other spice), and slowly replaced honey as the de facto sweetener. As time went on, it became more and more commonplace (albeit still horrendously expensive). Italy (and specifically Venice) had a near monopoly on sugar imports after establishing plantations on several Mediterranean islands.

While it was already widespread in the Islamic world by the middle ages, it took longer to reach Western Europe (cane being a tropical plant, could be grown in warm climates with proper irrigation methods, as it was in the Caliphate of Córdoba[[note]]Now known as Spain and Portugal[[/note]]). However, it was imported (at roughly the same expense as any other spice), and slowly replaced honey as the de facto sweetener. As time went on, it became more and more commonplace (albeit still horrendously expensive). Italy (and specifically Venice) had a near monopoly on sugar imports after establishing plantations on several Mediterranean islands.